In recent years, scientists and entrepreneurs have become increasingly interested in shared learning and knowledge. Authors have focused on the study of how learning contributes to the effectiveness of organizations. The definition suggested by Huber (1991) clearly exemplifies this: “learning means acquisition of knowledge recognized as potentially useful for the organization.”
This has been the starting point for the development of a wide number of theories about organizational learning and, more recently, about collective or group learning, since it is expected that teams can benefit their organizations more than individual employees.
Although the literature offers different definitions of the concept of “team learning,” the general tendency is to define it either as a process or a process and outcome. Team learning is defined as a continuous process of reflection and action directed toward obtaining and processing information in order to detect, understand and adapt to changes in the environment, and improve the team’s performance and results (Edmondson, 1999).
This process takes the form of a series of behaviors by team members, like asking questions, requesting feedback, experimenting, reflecting on the results and discussing errors or unexpected results of their actions. Team learning is defined as an outcome when it when it improves performance and efficiency. Given the importance of team learning, we might ask: what factors facilitate team learning in organizations? According to Gil, Rico and Sanchez-Manzanares (2008), some of the most important factors are the following:
a) Team composition. This refers to the attributes of the team members and how they combine to form effective, interdependent teams. The work teams can vary in composition depending on the type of attribute, the distribution among the team members and their stability over time. Two aspects of the team’s composition that have been the object of many studies are size (the number of people who integrate the team) and the characteristics of its members.
The essential question about size is what is the optimum number of members a team should have. As a team grows, it has more resources available, but it also needs more coordination. Wheelan (2009) has found that small teams are more productive and better developed than large teams, so this variable can be analyzed based on the hypothesis that there is an optimum size capable of favoring team learning. With regard to composition, a number of studies show that the diversity in areas and knowledge among the members can enhance team learning.
b) Task design and work context. The design of the team’s task is an issue that incorporates its autonomy, meaning the degree in which it has the capacity to make decisions about different aspects of its work (methods, scheduling, roles, etc.). A low level of autonomy indicates that the team has a very structured task that is defined by the organization, which minimizes the need to make collective decisions or manage internal processes.
On the other hand, a high level of autonomy implies that team members must collectively make a number of decisions about their job. Some research has shown that autonomy is a basic characteristic in the design of the team’s task, which modulates the effect both of other preceding variables (for example, team diversity) and the processes (team learning) on group efficacy
c) Interdependence. This refers to the degree with which the team members interact and depend upon each other to attain their goals. The team is perceived to be interdependent when its members see their actions and results as heavily affected by the actions and results of the others. Interdependence helps to develop team learning behavior
d) Virtuality. This is defined by three aspects: dependence of the members on information and communication technology to coordinate and execute team processes, the types of information the technologies contribute, and the synchrony of communication between team members. This factor significantly alters interaction among team members.
Working regularly in conditions of high virtuality limits signals from the social context present in face-to-face interaction, reduces the depth of discussion and analysis of the issues, and increases the amount of time needed to make collective decisions. Research into the relationship between virtuality and team learning is still scarce, so more studies are necessary, particularly on highly virtual teams.
e) Workplace environment. One of the more structured and widely studied models regarding the concept of workplace environment was developed by West (1990). Many researchers have adopted this model because of its use in predicting group yield in various organizations. The West model includes four dimensions of workplace environment: vision, secure participation, task focus and support for innovation.
The first dimension, vision, refers to the idea of a desired result that represents a goal and a motivating force on the job. Work groups with more clearly defined objectives are more likely to develop new work methods. The second dimension, secure participation, means that the people are involved actively in decision-making, influencing, interacting and sharing information.
Secure participation also refers to group interactions in an interpersonal atmosphere in which there is no threat, but rather trust and support. The third dimension, task focus, is evident by the emphasis on individual and group responsibility, control of a system to evaluate and modify yield, reflection on work methods, feedback and cooperation, mutual monitoring, evaluation of performance and ideas, clear criteria on results, exploration and difference of opinions, and a concern for maximizing the quality the results.
Finally, the fourth dimension, support for innovation, has to do with the introduction of new ideas and improvements in the way the work is done. More specifically, that the team expects, approves of and supports the introduction of better ways of doing things, which reinforce attempts at innovation and influence cooperation for the development of new ideas. All of this implies seeking out new ways of seeing problems, perceiving them as challenges and learning opportunities.
f) Leadership. Defined as “the process of influencing others to understand and agree on the needs that must be addressed and how to do so effectively, in the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to achieve shared objectives,” leadership is inevitably a key factor in shaping the workplace environment and motivation for learning. Researchers have found that the team leader can considerably affect the internal dynamics and results of the team.
For example, team leadership based on team coaching is related to learning, because a leader helps minimize differences of power and promotes interaction between the members, like talking about questions, problems and concerns on the job. Empowerment leadership relates positively with shared knowledge and this, in turn, with the yield of management teams. Another type of leadership, people-centered leadership, has been found to have a significant relationship with team learning.
Accordingly, we can say that the leaders of teams with higher level of learning and adaptation to changes in the organization favor their groups in various ways: a) by communicating and motivating a vision of change; b) by creating a climate of secure participation; e) by recognizing his or her own limitations; d) by valuing the contributions of all team members; and e) by eliminating barriers based on differences in power or status within the organization.
We can therefore conclude that the composition of the team, the task design, the context, interdependence, virtuality, workplace environment and leadership are all key factors in the development of team learning. Organizations can also benefit, however, by taking into account and putting into practice some techniques that can help to improve team learning. There are two types of techniques or intervention programs: training programs and teambuilding techniques.
Training programs can include cross training (team members acquire knowledge about the roles and tasks of their coworkers), metacognitive training (in which members become familiar with the strategies used to learn and, on this basis, select and use the most appropriate), team coordination training (intended for members to learn and handle processes that lead to effective teamwork), self-correction training (members learn abilities for analyzing their own performance, reviewing facts, exchanging feedback and planning future actions) and exposure to stressful situations (members learn about the principles of stress that can jeopardize the performance of the team, along with effective strategies for dealing with it) (Gil et al., 2008).
Teambuilding programs, on the other hand, attempt to improve the general functioning of the team using different techniques like role clarification, target setting, problem solving and improvement of interpersonal relations. Of all of these techniques, cross-training and metacognitive training are the most appropriate for team learning because of the objectives they establish.
References
Edmondson, A.C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behaviors in work teams. 44, 350-383.Administrative Science Quarterly
Gil, F., Rico, R. y Sánchez-Manzanares, M. (2008).Eficacia de equipos de trabajo, 29 (1), 25-31.Papeles del Psicólogo
Huber, G. P. (1991) Organizational learning: The contributing processes and the literatures. 2, 88-115. Organization science
West, M. A. (1990). “The social psychology of innovation in groups”. En M. A. West y J. L. Farr (Eds.), Innovation and Creativity at Work. Psychological and Organizational Strategies (pp. 309-333). Chichester: Wiley
Wheelan, S.A. (2009).Group size, group development and group productivity”. Small Group Research, 40, 247-262.
What Factors Facilitate Team Learning in Organizations?
In recent years, scientists and entrepreneurs have become increasingly interested in shared learning and knowledge. Authors have focused on the study of how learning contributes to the effectiveness of organizations. The definition suggested by Huber (1991) clearly exemplifies this: “learning means acquisition of knowledge recognized as potentially useful for the organization.”
This has been the starting point for the development of a wide number of theories about organizational learning and, more recently, about collective or group learning, since it is expected that teams can benefit their organizations more than individual employees.
Although the literature offers different definitions of the concept of “team learning,” the general tendency is to define it either as a process or a process and outcome. Team learning is defined as a continuous process of reflection and action directed toward obtaining and processing information in order to detect, understand and adapt to changes in the environment, and improve the team’s performance and results (Edmondson, 1999).
This process takes the form of a series of behaviors by team members, like asking questions, requesting feedback, experimenting, reflecting on the results and discussing errors or unexpected results of their actions. Team learning is defined as an outcome when it when it improves performance and efficiency. Given the importance of team learning, we might ask: what factors facilitate team learning in organizations? According to Gil, Rico and Sanchez-Manzanares (2008), some of the most important factors are the following:
a) Team composition. This refers to the attributes of the team members and how they combine to form effective, interdependent teams. The work teams can vary in composition depending on the type of attribute, the distribution among the team members and their stability over time. Two aspects of the team’s composition that have been the object of many studies are size (the number of people who integrate the team) and the characteristics of its members.
The essential question about size is what is the optimum number of members a team should have. As a team grows, it has more resources available, but it also needs more coordination. Wheelan (2009) has found that small teams are more productive and better developed than large teams, so this variable can be analyzed based on the hypothesis that there is an optimum size capable of favoring team learning. With regard to composition, a number of studies show that the diversity in areas and knowledge among the members can enhance team learning.
b) Task design and work context. The design of the team’s task is an issue that incorporates its autonomy, meaning the degree in which it has the capacity to make decisions about different aspects of its work (methods, scheduling, roles, etc.). A low level of autonomy indicates that the team has a very structured task that is defined by the organization, which minimizes the need to make collective decisions or manage internal processes.
On the other hand, a high level of autonomy implies that team members must collectively make a number of decisions about their job. Some research has shown that autonomy is a basic characteristic in the design of the team’s task, which modulates the effect both of other preceding variables (for example, team diversity) and the processes (team learning) on group efficacy
c) Interdependence. This refers to the degree with which the team members interact and depend upon each other to attain their goals. The team is perceived to be interdependent when its members see their actions and results as heavily affected by the actions and results of the others. Interdependence helps to develop team learning behavior
d) Virtuality. This is defined by three aspects: dependence of the members on information and communication technology to coordinate and execute team processes, the types of information the technologies contribute, and the synchrony of communication between team members. This factor significantly alters interaction among team members.
Working regularly in conditions of high virtuality limits signals from the social context present in face-to-face interaction, reduces the depth of discussion and analysis of the issues, and increases the amount of time needed to make collective decisions. Research into the relationship between virtuality and team learning is still scarce, so more studies are necessary, particularly on highly virtual teams.
e) Workplace environment. One of the more structured and widely studied models regarding the concept of workplace environment was developed by West (1990). Many researchers have adopted this model because of its use in predicting group yield in various organizations. The West model includes four dimensions of workplace environment: vision, secure participation, task focus and support for innovation.
The first dimension, vision, refers to the idea of a desired result that represents a goal and a motivating force on the job. Work groups with more clearly defined objectives are more likely to develop new work methods. The second dimension, secure participation, means that the people are involved actively in decision-making, influencing, interacting and sharing information.
Secure participation also refers to group interactions in an interpersonal atmosphere in which there is no threat, but rather trust and support. The third dimension, task focus, is evident by the emphasis on individual and group responsibility, control of a system to evaluate and modify yield, reflection on work methods, feedback and cooperation, mutual monitoring, evaluation of performance and ideas, clear criteria on results, exploration and difference of opinions, and a concern for maximizing the quality the results.
Finally, the fourth dimension, support for innovation, has to do with the introduction of new ideas and improvements in the way the work is done. More specifically, that the team expects, approves of and supports the introduction of better ways of doing things, which reinforce attempts at innovation and influence cooperation for the development of new ideas. All of this implies seeking out new ways of seeing problems, perceiving them as challenges and learning opportunities.
f) Leadership. Defined as “the process of influencing others to understand and agree on the needs that must be addressed and how to do so effectively, in the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to achieve shared objectives,” leadership is inevitably a key factor in shaping the workplace environment and motivation for learning. Researchers have found that the team leader can considerably affect the internal dynamics and results of the team.
For example, team leadership based on team coaching is related to learning, because a leader helps minimize differences of power and promotes interaction between the members, like talking about questions, problems and concerns on the job. Empowerment leadership relates positively with shared knowledge and this, in turn, with the yield of management teams. Another type of leadership, people-centered leadership, has been found to have a significant relationship with team learning.
Accordingly, we can say that the leaders of teams with higher level of learning and adaptation to changes in the organization favor their groups in various ways: a) by communicating and motivating a vision of change; b) by creating a climate of secure participation; e) by recognizing his or her own limitations; d) by valuing the contributions of all team members; and e) by eliminating barriers based on differences in power or status within the organization.
We can therefore conclude that the composition of the team, the task design, the context, interdependence, virtuality, workplace environment and leadership are all key factors in the development of team learning. Organizations can also benefit, however, by taking into account and putting into practice some techniques that can help to improve team learning. There are two types of techniques or intervention programs: training programs and teambuilding techniques.
Training programs can include cross training (team members acquire knowledge about the roles and tasks of their coworkers), metacognitive training (in which members become familiar with the strategies used to learn and, on this basis, select and use the most appropriate), team coordination training (intended for members to learn and handle processes that lead to effective teamwork), self-correction training (members learn abilities for analyzing their own performance, reviewing facts, exchanging feedback and planning future actions) and exposure to stressful situations (members learn about the principles of stress that can jeopardize the performance of the team, along with effective strategies for dealing with it) (Gil et al., 2008).
Teambuilding programs, on the other hand, attempt to improve the general functioning of the team using different techniques like role clarification, target setting, problem solving and improvement of interpersonal relations. Of all of these techniques, cross-training and metacognitive training are the most appropriate for team learning because of the objectives they establish.
References